In this article is to transmit dream theory inside the environment of ego psychology by defensive the suggestion that dreaming is a cognitive method. Dreams were a conceptualization of experiences (Hall,1953). These experiences drawn in our perceptions of individuals in our environment, it will give fetch our ideas of our self. Hall believed that our dreams were a way of shaping our own ideas of the world. He believed that during dreaming, we articulated creativity, similar to what we would do when expressing ourselves through metaphors in poetry. In order to develop this article, it is necessary to discuss about thinking. Thinking is a process of manipulating the information and it forms organization thought towards the problem. A conception is an item of knowledge, a formulation of experience which has meaning for a person. Some of conceptions are (1) the action and traits of the dreamer in the dream (2) the kind of character introduced in the dream (3) the achievement and behavior assigned to them (4) the nature of the communications between the visionary and these characters (5) the setting of dream scene (6) transitions with dream (7) the conclusion of the dream. who are born blind or who become blind before age of 4 have no visual imagery in their dreams, whereas those who become blind after age 6 continue to have visual imagery in their dreams(N.Kerr,1993). Based on the results of laboratory studies, dreaming appears to be a plodding cognitive accomplishment that depends upon the expansion of cognitive abilities that are also essential in waking life. This reading will help to elucidate how cognitive theory of dreaming is going to develop thinking and learning process.

Key words: Dreams, thinking, cognitive theory of dreaming

Introduction:

Dream:

A dream is a progression of images, for the most part image in prominence, which are familiar during sleep. A dream normally has one or more scenes, several characters in addition to the dreamer, and a progression of actions and connections frequently connecting the dreamer. Dream resembles a action picture or theatrical production in which the dreamer is a participant-observer. The world of dreams, it goes without saying, is a world of pure projection of dreamer. Images of a dream are the embodiment of thoughts. Images of a dream are the embodiment of thoughts. The psychological process, cognition, is transformed into a form that can be perceived. The images are which ideas find sensible expression in dreams, other media as words, numbers, gestures, and pictures are employed in waking life for making one’s thoughts known. When thought is made perceptible, it is said to be communicated. A dream is a highly private showing of dreamers thoughts.

Dreaming & Thinking:

Thinking is a process of conceiving, end product process is a conception (idea). A conception is an item of knowledge, a formulation of experience. It is derived ultimately from experience but it is not dependent for its existence at any given moment upon the reception of sensory impressions from the external world or from one’s body. In other words, conceiving is an autonomous process that requires no direct sensory data. It may be contrasted with perceiving, a process which is dependent upon direct stimulation of the senses, forms including dreams. An artist expresses his conceptions in visual terms, while writers and speakers use words to make their ideas public. Mathematicians employ numbers and symbols for conveying their thoughts, and musicians express themselves in patterns of tone, rhythm, intensity, and quality. A dancer embodies her ideas in physical movement, a sculptor in three dimensional forms, and an architect in buildings. The formulation and communication of ideas are the essence of all creative endeavors.

 

Cognitive theory of Dreams (G. William Domhoff):

Four very different types of unexpected research findings from inside and outside the sleep laboratory since the 1950s make it possible to suggest a new cognitive approach to dreaming and dream content, an approach that has the potential to be extended into a neuro  cognitive theory as well. These findings, cast doubt on the Freudian, Jungian, and activation-synthesis theories that dominated thinking about dreams in the twentieth century. Those three theories all began with the idea that there were major differences between waking cognition and dreaming, but the findings suggest that there are far more parallels between dreaming and waking thought than they realized ( Domhoff , 2003b).

A cognitive theory of dream claims about pre-school children’s dreams by Freudians and Jungians, who rely on retrospective reports from adults or on home dream reports that are now suspect as possible confabulations due to pressures from adults to report a dream (Domhoff, 2003b, pp. 23-24). In addition, these findings were completely unanticipated by activation-synthesis theorists, who have refused to accept them. As if to underscore their scorn for a cognitive theory, the activation-synthesis theorists have stated that “we specifically suggest that the human neonate, spending as it does more than 50% of its time in REM sleep, is having indescribable but nevertheless real oneiric experiences” (Hobson, et al., 2000b, pp. 803). This statement shows that their theory begins and ends at the neurophysiological level, whereas a cognitive theory begins with phenomenal experience and dreams reports — or the lack thereof.

            If there are more similarities than differences between dreaming and waking cognition, then there may be only small changes when alert waking thought turns into dreaming. Therefore, the key issue is not the activation of a “primary process” and “repressed” wishes, as in Freudian theory, nor the expression of “archetypal symbols” lodged within an inherited “collective unconscious,” as in Jungian theory. Nor is there a need for allegedly random stimulation from the pontine tegmentum within the brain stem or for the unique neurochemical state that is part of REM sleep, as in activation-synthesis theory (Hobson, 2002; Hobson, Pace-Schott, & Stickgold, 2000b).

Dreaming can be seen as the “default” position for the activated brain when it is not forced to focus on physical and social reality by (1) external stimuli and (2) the self system that reminds us of who we are, where we are, and what the tasks are that face us. This possibility is supported by laboratory studies revealing the dreamlike nature of thinking during the transition from waking to sleeping (Foulkes & Vogel, 1965; Vogel, 1991; Vogel, Barrowclough, & Giesler, 1972). It is also supported by systematic observations demonstrating that dreaming can occur during relaxed waking states when lying quietly in a darkened room, with wakefulness monitored by the EEG (Foulkes, 1999; Foulkes & Fleisher, 1975; Foulkes & Scott, 1973). There are also strong cognitive connections between waking fantasy, daydreaming, and dreaming (Levin & Young, 2001-2002). Furthermore, these findings on similarities between dreaming and daydreaming may provide a bridge to studies of mind-wandering and the default network that seems to underlie drifting waking thought (e.g., Mason, et al., 2007; Smallwood & Schooler, 2006).

From a cognitive perspective, dreams express people’s “conceptions,” which are also the basis for action in the waking world. Dreams are a dramatic and perceptible embodiment of schemas, scripts, and general knowledge. They are like plays that the mind stages for itself when it doesn’t have anything specific to do. In particular, many dream scenarios express several key aspects of people’s conceptual systems, especially self-conceptions, which can be defined as a set of cognitive generalizations about the person that guide the processing of self-relevant information and events. Starting with the idea that dreams often reveal highly personal conceptions, it is possible to build a complex picture of a dreamer’s overall conceptual system because people usually have more than one conception of themselves. Dreams also express conceptions of family and friends; they less often involve politics, economics, or other current events. However, there is also a significant minority of dreams, perhaps as many as 30% for some adults, which have no easily discernable connections to the person’s waking life (Domhoff, Meyer-Gomes, & Schredl, 2005-2006). They are more like sagas or adventure stories; Foulkes (1999, p. 136) calls such dreams “narrative-driven” to contrast them with dreams that seem to be based on personal concerns.

Developmental Studies of Children:

Longitudinal and cross-sectional studies of children ages 3 to 15 in the sleep laboratory reveal that dreaming gradually develops beginning late in the pre-school years in steps that parallel waking cognitive development (Foulkes, 1982, 1999; Foulkes, Hollifield, Sullivan, Bradley, & Terry, 1990). The median recall of pre-school children from REM awakenings of anything that could reasonably be called a dream was only 15%, and the content of the few reports that were obtained was static, undeveloped, and lacking in any emotion. The REM reports became more “dreamlike” (in terms of characters, themes, and actions) in the 5 to 6 year-olds, and the dreamers themselves began to play a more central role in their dreams by ages 7-8. Dreaming became adult like in its cognitive complexity at ages 9-10, but it was not until the children were 11 to 13 years old that their dreams began to resemble those of adult laboratory participants in frequency, length, content, and emotions, or to have any relationship to personality. Cognitive abilities of the children in this studies showed that lack of dram reports cannot be attributed to a failure to recall or an inability to coomunicate.The frequency of dream reporting in children ages 5-9 is visuospatial skills, which leads to the mental imagery may develop gradually and be necessary cognitive prerequisite fr dreaming. This idea is supported by studies revealing that those who are born blind or who become blind before age of 4 have no visual imagery in their dreams, whereas those who become blind after age 6 continue to have visual imagery in their dreams(N.Kerr,1993). Based on the results of laboratory studies , dreaming appears to be a gradual cognitive achievement that depends upon the development of cognitive abilities that are also important in waking life.

A Cognitive Theory of Dreams(Calvin S. Hall):

Dreaming consists of transforming conceptions into images, then dream interpretation reverses this process; images are translated into their referent ideas. Dreaming accomplished by drawing inferences  from material in the dream text, and by checking these inferences against other dreams of the person or against other information about the person. To interpret a dream means, according to cognitive theory  to discover the conceptions or conceptual systems of the dreamer, these conceptions may be inferred from a number of lines of evidence, some of which are as follows: (a) the actions and qualities of the dreamer in the dream, i.e., the role or roles played by the dreamer, (b) the kind of characters introduced in the dream, (c) the actions and qualities assigned to them, (d) the nature of the interactions between the dreamer and these characters, and between the characters themselves, (e) the setting or dream scene (f) transitions within the dream, and (g) the outcome of the dream. The final objective of dream interpretation is not to understand the dream but rather to understand the dreamer.

Dreams were a conceptualization of experiences (Hall,1953). These experiences involved our perceptions of those in our environment, as well as our ideas of our self. Cognitive Theory of dreaming was one of the first of his time that was not consistent with Freud’s idea of “wishful thinking”. Instead, Hall believed that our dreams were a way of shaping our own ideas of the world. He believed that during dreams, we expressed creativity, similar to what we would do when expressing ourselves through metaphors in poetry (Hall, 1953).

1. Ourself ( how we see ourselves and our prominent roles In life)
2. Others (how we react to others around us)
3. The world(optimism vs. pessimism)
4. Morals( what is accepted as human beings and what are our limits)
5. Conflict ( conflicts within our psyche )

Because Hall was a behavioral psychologist, he believed that our conceptions have a tremendous impact on our behavior when awake. These accomplishments have made a tremendous influence in the field of studying dreams. The scale provided the first opportunity to measure dream cognition in a quantitative and statistical way!

Neurological findings account for the bizarre manner in which dreams appear to the waking mind, and appear supportive of an emotionally guided, self-restoration, creative problem solving and behavioural learning function. Few areas of the brain found active and inactive in REM sleeo along with a brief summary of the known functioniong of each, based on brain scans (Hobsone et.al, .2003 & 2007, Dang-vu et.al. 2007).

Conclusion:

Domhoff (2003) realized that a cognitive theory of dreams is the only current theory that can encompass two well-established findings (1) dream content is for the most part coherent, consistent, and continuous with waking concerns; and (2) dreaming is a gradually developed cognitive achievement based on the ability to imagine and to generate mental imagery. Dreams are a perceptual embodiment and dramatization of a person’s thoughts, an fMRI of the mind at night. They are the quintessential cognitive simulation because they are experienced as real while they are happening.

1. Dreaming is a cognitive activity, and a dream is a pictorial representation of the dreamer’s conceptions.

2. Dream interpretation consists of discovering the thinking (conceptions) that lie behind the dream images.

3. Thinking (Conceptions) represented in dreams usually fall into one of the following classes: (a) self-conceptions, (b) conceptions of other people, (c) conceptions of the world, (d) conceptions of impulses, prohibitions, and penalties, and (e) conceptions of conflicts.

4. Ideas (Conceptions) are organized into conceptual systems, and these systems are the antecedents of behavior.

5. Dreams provide excellent material for the analysis of thinking (conceptual) systems since they portray unconscious and prototypic conceptions.

6. The theory presented an extension of ego psychology to include dreaming as a function of the ego.

As a behavioral psychologist, Hall believed these conceptions are antecedents to our behavior in the waking world.  They’re like maps to our actions, and “with these maps we are able to follow the course of man’s behavior, to understand why he selects one road rather than another, to anticipate the difficulties and obstacles he will encounter, and to predict his destinations.”

References:

1. http://www.britannica.com/science/learning-theory
2. Antrobus, J. (1983). REM and NREM sleep reports: Comparisons of word frequencies by cognitive classes. Psychophysiology, 20, 562-568.
3. Antrobus, J., Kondo, T., & Reinsel, R. (1995). Dreaming in the late morning: Summation of REM and diurnal cortical activation. Consciousness & Cognition, 4, 275-299.
4. Avila-White, D., Schneider, A., & Domhoff, G. W. (1999). The most recent dreams of 12-13 year-old boys and girls: A methodological contribution to the study of dream content in teenagers. Dreaming, 9, 163-171.
5. Baylor, G., & Cavallero, C. (2001). Memory sources associated with REM and NREM dream reports throughout the night: A new look at the data. Sleep, 24, 165-170.
6. Blagrove, M. (1992). Dreams as a reflection of our waking concerns and abilities: A critique of the problem-solving paradigm in dream research. Dreaming, 2, 205-220.
7. Blagrove, M. (1996). Problems with the cognitive psychological modeling of dreaming. Journal of Mind and Behavior, 17, 99-134.
8. Blagrove, M. (2000). Dreams have meaning but no function. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 23, 910.
9. Botman, H., & Crovitz (1989). Dream reports and autobiographical memory. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 9, 213-214.
10. Braun, A., Balkin, T., Wesensten, N., Carson, R., Varga, M., Baldwin, P., et al. (1997). Regional cerebral blood flow throughout the sleep-wake cycle: An (H2O)-O-15 PET study. Brain, 120, 1173-1197.
11. Braun, A., Balkin, T., Wesensten, N., Gwadry, F., Carson, R., Varga, M., et al. (1998). Dissociated pattern of activity in visual cortices and their projections during human rapid eye movement sleep. Science, 279, 91-95.
12. Bulkeley, K. (2009). Seeking patterns in dream content: A systematic approach to word searches Consciousness and Cognition, 18, 909-916.
13. Bulkeley, K., & Domhoff, G. W. (2010). Detecting meaning in dream reports: An extension of a word search approach. Dreaming, In Press.
14. Cicogna, P., Natale, V., Occhionero, M., & Bosinelli, M. (1998). A comparison of mental activity during sleep onset and morning awakening. Sleep, 21(5), 462-470.
15. Damasio, A., Graff-Radford, N., Eslinger, P., Damasio, H., & Kassell, N. (1985). Amnesia following basal forebrain lesions. Archives of Neurology, 42, 263-271.
16. Domhoff, G. W. (1996). Finding meaning in dreams: A quantitative approach. New York: Plenum.
17. Domhoff, G. W. (2003a). Dreaming – An introduction to the science of sleep. Science, 299(5615), 1987-1988.
18. Domhoff, G. W. (2003b). The scientific study of dreams: Neural networks, cognitive development, and content analysis. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
19. Domhoff, G. W. (2004). Why did empirical dream researchers reject Freud? A critique of historical claims by Mark Solms. Dreaming, 14, 3-17.
20. Domhoff, G. W. (2007). Realistic simulation and bizarreness in dream content: Past findings and suggestions for future research. In D. Barrett & P. McNamara (Eds.), The new science of dreaming: Content, recall, and personality correlates (Vol. 2, pp. 1-27). Westport, CT: Praeger.
21. Domhoff, G. W., Meyer-Gomes, K., & Schredl, M. (2005-2006). Dreams as the expression of conceptions and concerns: A comparison of German and American college students. Imagination, Cognition & Personality, 25, 269-282.
22. Domhoff, G. W., & Schneider, A. (1999). Much ado about very little: The small effect sizes when home and laboratory collected dreams are compared. Dreaming, 9, 139-151.
23. Dorus, E., Dorus, W., & Rechtschaffen, A. (1971). The incidence of novelty in dreams. Archives of General Psychiatry, 25, 364-368.
24. Fosse, M., Fosse, R., Hobson, J. A., & Stickgold, R. (2003). Dreaming and episodic memory: A functional dissociation? Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 15, 1-9.
25. Fosse, R., Stickgold, R., & Hobson, J. A. (2001). Brain-mind states: Reciprocal variation in thoughts and hallucinations. Psychological Science, 12, 30-36.
26. Fosse, R., Stickgold, R., & Hobson, J. A. (2004). Thinking and hallucinating: Reciprocal changes in sleep. Psychophysiology, 41, 298-305.
27. Foulkes, D. (1979). Home and laboratory dreams: Four empirical studies and a conceptual reevaluation. Sleep, 2, 233-251.
28. Foulkes, D. (1982). Children’s dreams. New York: Wiley.
29. Foulkes, D. (1999). Children’s dreaming and the development of consciousness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
30. Foulkes, D., & Fleisher, S. (1975). Mental activity in relaxed wakefulness. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 84, 66-75.
31. Foulkes, D., Hollifield, M., Sullivan, B., Bradley, L., & Terry, R. (1990). REM dreaming and cognitive skills at ages 5-8: A cross-sectional study. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 13, 447-465.
32. Foulkes, D., Meier, B., Strauch, I., Kerr, N., Bradley, L., & Hollifield, M. (1993). Linguistic phenomena and language selection in the REM dreams of German-English bilinguals. International Journal of Psychology, 28(6), 871-891.
33. http://www2.ucsc.edu/dreams/Library/hall_1953b.html
34. http://dreamscience.org/articles/Cognitive_Function_Dreaming-Hoss.pdf
35. · Hartmann, E. (2011) The Nature and Functions of Dreaming, Oxford University Press, 2011 (pending)
36. http://dreams.umwblogs.org/post-freudian-interpretations-2/a-scientific-battle/cognitive-theory/
37. http://www2.ucsc.edu/dreams/Library/domhoff_2010a.html
38. http://dreamstudies.org/2009/12/03/calvin-hall-cognitive-theory-of-dreaming/